Specifically, there was a robust facilitative effect of reddish-colored faces on anger perception; this indicates that a reddish-colored face appears angrier. Facial flushing during anger has been reported in physiological studies 2 , 4 , Although other emotional states such as pleasure 5 also induce a facial color change, our results suggest that the perceptual effect of facial color is especially robust for anger perception.
In sadness-happiness discrimination, bluish pale faces enhanced sadness perception. Alkawaz et al. In addition, this difference was smaller than the one between anger and fear. Their results were consistent with our findings.
In experiment 2, the facial color boundary was significantly shifted only for the sad expression, suggesting that the sad face appeared pale bluish. The fear-neutral-anger expression set had no effect on color perception. The disproportionate results of the facial expression effect have been due to differences in the emotional information of the facial expressions.
As presented above, distinguishing between fear and anger was more difficult than distinguishing between sadness and happiness; hence, an unconscious expression effect during facial color discrimination might have less of an effect in the fear-neutral-anger expression set.
The expression effect was too small to influence the RT for facial color even in the sadness-neutral-happiness set compared to the facial color effect observed in experiment 1.
These results show that facial expression has a limited effect on facial color perception. In general, facial expression is processed at a later stage of face perception processing 33 , 34 , 35 , A potential limitation of the present study is that we only used Japanese faces as visual stimuli.
The accuracy of emotion discrimination is higher when the race of facial stimuli is the same race as the perceiver The effect of facial color obtained in this study is also likely to produce similar effects to such cross-race effects. The present study conducted two psychophysical experiments to investigate the effect of facial color and expression on face perception. Our results suggest an interactive but disproportionate relationship between facial color and expression on face perception.
We provide psychophysical evidence for the effect of facial color on facial expression perception. The participants of the present study were all Japanese; therefore, future studies are needed to investigate the interaction of facial color and facial expression in other ethnic groups.
How to cite this article : Nakajima, K. Interaction between facial expression and color. Publisher's note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Author Contributions T. All authors reviewed the manuscript. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Sci Rep. Published online Jan Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Received Feb 1; Accepted Dec See commentary " Commentary: Interaction between facial expression and color " in Front Neurosci , volume 11, This article has been cited by other articles in PMC.
Abstract Facial color varies depending on emotional state, and emotions are often described in relation to facial color. Stimuli For experiment 1, color images of an emotional face i. Open in a separate window. Figure 1. Examples of the morph continua for the three facial color conditions used in experiment 1. Figure 2. Examples of the facial color continua for the five expressions used in experiment 2.
Procedure Experiment 1 was performed in four blocks, as follows: 1 a fear-to-anger block with a male face ; 2 a fear-to-anger block with a female face ; 3 a sadness-to-happiness block with a male face ; and 4 a sadness-to-happiness block with a female face. Data analysis The expression identification rate experiment 1 , facial color identification rate experiment 2 , and mean response times were computed for each face stimuli. Figure 3. Psychometric function and PSE of a representative participant.
Results Point of subjective equality and reaction times in experiment 1 The average PSE for fear-to-anger and sadness-to-happiness continua are shown in Fig. Figure 4. The PSEs for the facial expression discrimination task in experiment 1. Figure 5. The RTs for the facial expression discrimination task in experiment 1. Point of subjective equality and reaction times in experiment 2 The average PSE for fear-neutral-anger and sadness-neutral-happiness sets are shown in Fig.
Figure 6. The PSEs for the facial color discrimination task in experiment 2. Figure 7. The RTs for the facial color discrimination task in experiment 2.
Discussion The present study investigated the relationship between facial color and expression on face perception. Additional Information How to cite this article : Nakajima, K. Footnotes Author Contributions T. References Kreibig S. Autonomic nervous system activity in emotion: A review. Biological Psychology 84 , — The expression of the emotions in man and animals , Vol. University of Chicago Press, The effect of expressing anger on cardiovascular reactivity and facial blood flow in Chinese and Caucasians.
Psychophysiology 38 , — See red? Turn pale? Unveiling emotions through cardiovascular and hemodynamic changes. The Spanish journal of psychology 8 , 79—85 The effect of anger and pleasure on facial blood flow. Australian Journal of Psychology 46 , 95—99 Correlates of facial flushing and pallor in anger-provoking situations. Personality and Individual Differences 23 , — Surridge A.
Evolution and selection of trichromatic vision in primates. Trends Ecol. Bare skin, blood and the evolution of primate colour vision. Ecology and evolution of primate colour vision. Clin Exp Optom 87 , — Houghton, Colour cues for leaf food selection by long-tailed macaques Macaca fascicularis with a new suggestion for the evolution of trichromatic colour vision.
Folia Primatol Basel 69 , — Colour detection thresholds in faces and colour patches. Perception 42 , — The use of pigmentation and shading information in recognising the sex and identities of faces. Perception 23 , — Sexing faces using only red and green. Journal of Vision 1 , When facial attractiveness is only skin deep.
Perception 33 , — Evolution and Human Behavior 27 , — Color homogeneity and visual perception of age, health, and attractiveness of female facial skin. J Am Acad Dermatol 57 , — Int J Primatol 30 , — Evolutionary psychology: an international journal of evolutionary approaches to psychology and behavior 10 , — In Robot and Human Interactive Communication, ROMAN Color and facial expressions. Journal of Vision 7 , Brighten up: Smiles facilitate perceptual judgment of facial lightness.
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48 , — The assessment and analysis of handedness: the Edinburgh inventory. Neuropsychologia 9 , 97— University of Oulu Finland, In Intelligent Virtual Agents , Vol. R package version , 2. Version 1 , 18 Effects of color information on face processing using event-related potentials and gamma oscillations. Neuroscience , — The face-selective N component is modulated by facial color. Neuropsychologia 50 , — Brain topography 26 , 62—71 Does processing of emotional facial expressions depend on intention?
B Sadness-to-happiness continua. The error bars show the standard error of the mean of the PSEs across participants.
These results indicate that the participants judged the reddish-colored face continuum as angrier than the bluish- and neutral-colored continua. These results indicate that the participants judged the bluish-colored face continuum as sadder than the reddish- and neutral-colored continua.
We also found a significant facial color main effect on RT [F 2, The error bars show the standard error of the mean of the RTs across participants. There was a significant facial color main effect on RT [F 2, The average PSE for fear-neutral-anger and sadness-neutral-happiness sets are shown in Fig. For both expression sets, a higher PSE indicates that the participants responded to the facial color continuum as more bluish, while a lower PSE indicates that the participants responded to the continuum as more reddish Fig.
Data from one subject a female was removed from the group analysis because she had remarkably different pattern of facial color identification compared to the others, and thus her PSE could not be calculated.
As a result, the group analysis was performed for the data from 19 participants. A Fear-neutral-anger set. B Sadness-neutral-happiness set. Regarding reaction times, we found a significant main effect of facial color level on fear-neutral-anger [F 1, The present study investigated the relationship between facial color and expression on face perception.
We demonstrated that facial color influences the perception of facial expression. In contrast, facial expression only slightly affects the perception of facial color.
The present results reveal a link between facial color and emotion perception, and provide evidence that facial color chromaticity contributes to emotion perception. Moreover, our results that facial color promotes facial expression recognition, and vice versa, partially supports the hypothesis that the evolution of trichromacy is related to the detection of social signals. In experiment 1, facial color shifted the expression categorical boundary PSE and modulated the reaction times of expression judgment.
These results show that reddish-colored faces enhance anger perception, and bluish-colored faces enhance sadness perception. Specifically, there was a robust facilitative effect of reddish-colored faces on anger perception; this indicates that a reddish-colored face appears angrier.
Facial flushing during anger has been reported in physiological studies 2 , 4 , Although other emotional states such as pleasure 5 also induce a facial color change, our results suggest that the perceptual effect of facial color is especially robust for anger perception. In sadness-happiness discrimination, bluish pale faces enhanced sadness perception. Alkawaz et al. In addition, this difference was smaller than the one between anger and fear.
Their results were consistent with our findings. In experiment 2, the facial color boundary was significantly shifted only for the sad expression, suggesting that the sad face appeared pale bluish.
The fear-neutral-anger expression set had no effect on color perception. The disproportionate results of the facial expression effect have been due to differences in the emotional information of the facial expressions. As presented above, distinguishing between fear and anger was more difficult than distinguishing between sadness and happiness; hence, an unconscious expression effect during facial color discrimination might have less of an effect in the fear-neutral-anger expression set.
The expression effect was too small to influence the RT for facial color even in the sadness-neutral-happiness set compared to the facial color effect observed in experiment 1. These results show that facial expression has a limited effect on facial color perception. In general, facial expression is processed at a later stage of face perception processing 33 , 34 , 35 , A potential limitation of the present study is that we only used Japanese faces as visual stimuli.
The accuracy of emotion discrimination is higher when the race of facial stimuli is the same race as the perceiver The effect of facial color obtained in this study is also likely to produce similar effects to such cross-race effects.
The present study conducted two psychophysical experiments to investigate the effect of facial color and expression on face perception. Our results suggest an interactive but disproportionate relationship between facial color and expression on face perception. We provide psychophysical evidence for the effect of facial color on facial expression perception.
The participants of the present study were all Japanese; therefore, future studies are needed to investigate the interaction of facial color and facial expression in other ethnic groups. How to cite this article : Nakajima, K. Interaction between facial expression and color. Publisher's note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Kreibig, S. Autonomic nervous system activity in emotion: A review. Biological Psychology 84 , — Article Google Scholar. Darwin, C. The expression of the emotions in man and animals , Vol. University of Chicago Press, Drummond, P.
The effect of expressing anger on cardiovascular reactivity and facial blood flow in Chinese and Caucasians. Psychophysiology 38 , — Montoya, P. See red? Turn pale? Unveiling emotions through cardiovascular and hemodynamic changes. The Spanish journal of psychology 8 , 79—85 The effect of anger and pleasure on facial blood flow.
Australian Journal of Psychology 46 , 95—99 Correlates of facial flushing and pallor in anger-provoking situations. Personality and Individual Differences 23 , — Ramirez, G. Surridge, A. Evolution and selection of trichromatic vision in primates. Trends Ecol. Changizi, M. Bare skin, blood and the evolution of primate colour vision.
Vorobyev, M. Ecology and evolution of primate colour vision. Clin Exp Optom 87 , — Allen, G. Houghton, Lucas, P. Colour cues for leaf food selection by long-tailed macaques Macaca fascicularis with a new suggestion for the evolution of trichromatic colour vision.
Folia Primatol Basel 69 , — Tan, K. Colour detection thresholds in faces and colour patches. Perception 42 , — Bruce, V. The use of pigmentation and shading information in recognising the sex and identities of faces.
Perception 23 , — Tarr, M. Sexing faces using only red and green. Journal of Vision 1 , Jones, B. When facial attractiveness is only skin deep. Perception 33 , — Fink, B. Evolution and Human Behavior 27 , — Matts, P. Color homogeneity and visual perception of age, health, and attractiveness of female facial skin. J Am Acad Dermatol 57 , — Stephen, I. Int J Primatol 30 , — Evolutionary psychology: an international journal of evolutionary approaches to psychology and behavior 10 , — Yamada, T.
In Robot and Human Interactive Communication, ROMAN Yasuda, M. Color and facial expressions. Journal of Vision 7 , Song, H. Brighten up: Smiles facilitate perceptual judgment of facial lightness. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48 , — Oldfield, R. The assessment and analysis of handedness: the Edinburgh inventory. Neuropsychologia 9 , 97— Martinkauppi, B. University of Oulu Finland, Jung, Y. In Intelligent Virtual Agents , Vol. Ruttkay, M. Kipp, A. Kuznetsova, A.
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All authors reviewed the manuscript. Correspondence to Tetsuto Minami. Reprints and Permissions. Sci Rep 7, Download citation.
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